In looking at agriculture we are faced by many problems of definition, as well as source, the primary aim of this article is to focus on methodologies of agriculture in use during the Viking period.

  Livestock

            We know from archaeological evidence that a range of animals were in use as livestock during the Viking period, they differ somewhat from the typical modern day examples, but the variety remains pretty much the same.

            Cattle were a useful animal, bullocks for ploughing and general pulling, meat, and eventual stud. Cows provided milk, which could be used for drinking, nursing, and predominantly for cheeses. The cows themselves tended to be smaller than the modern day animals, similar in type to the Bas Longifrons now bred only in museum recreations.

            Sheep came in many different types, and physical evidence has been found in England for the use of several types although the dominant type no longer exists, it having been a natural species in use since the early iron age, its nearest relative can be seen in the form of the Jacobs Sheep, other breeds in use included the Brown Soay, the Roman White, and the Horned Black Face, a breed which was almost certainly introduced to England by the Danes. Goats were also in use, though they tended to be smaller and bore a striking resemblance to the wild mountain goat still to be found in the Franco-Swiss Alps.

            The evidence for Pigs indicates the use of two species across the country, Sus Scrofa, and Sus Scrofa Pallustris, although again now virtually only ever to be found in museum farms, they still exist as known species.

            Poultry provide by far the most easily identifiable sources, the common Hen, The Indian Jungle Fowl, is to be found across England, and dates back at least as far as the La Tene Celtic period. Geese and Ducks are regularly found wherever water sources were available for their use, although all evidence points to the common White Goose as having been used, the breed of Duck has never successfully been identified to the satisfaction of all.

  This Picture demonstrates the changes which have been bred in between the Anglo Saxon livestock and our own. The Light image is an average size representation for the late 8^th century, the darker that of current 21^st century average sizes. The inset photograph shows a group of Soay sheep, characteristic of Anglo Saxon and Viking period sheep. 

Arable

            Surprisingly, to those of us who were taught that crop rotation was a fifteenth century idea, the Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings had a method of seasonal crop rotation of their own. Documentary evidence indicates that fields were alternated between; wheat, root, and livestock. The result of the above type of crop rotation would have been a steady medium grade soil in which most crops would grow satisfactorily, but without a fallow period the land would not show the abundance of harvest that true crop rotation can provide. The types of crops grown varied widely, and were, not unnaturally, predominantly of types suited to particular regions, specific types will be explored in a later article.

            The plough itself had not been invented at this point, its close cousin, the Ard, was in use at this time, it represented a useful tool in that it cut the soil in strips ready to accept crops spread by hand, but it did not turn the soil as the later medieval type did, and thus it did not help the soil to regenerate, the inset Photograph shows the iron soil cutting head of a period Ard. Tools in use during this period included virtually every hand tool in use two hundred years ago on any farm in England, Scythes and Sickles for harvesting (See photographs below for examples of surviving Blades), wooden spades edged with iron for small soil work, the Ard in place of the plough, rakes and hoes for weed management, buckets, rubbled land drains, etc. It can safely be assumed from the evidence that virtually all the techniques of the nineteenth century, barring the obvious exceptions, were in use at this time, as we have the same tool design and accounts, as well as supporting documentary evidence.

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